The Martial Implications of the Chinese Ideogram ‘中’ [Zhong1]!
Translation and Commentary by Adrian Chan-Wyles PhD
Translator’s Note: Many Chinese women still wear jade-discs (containing a central hole) around the neck secured by a chain or cord. Eichhorn correctly states that the originators of the Xia Dynasty (what he refers to as the ‘Hsia dynasty’) were worshippers of the Sun. These jade-discs are thought to symbolise the Sun – which were originally linked to a fertility rite involving fertile women touching the tribal (or clan) totem - near the time of conception. The act of procreation was associated with a number of non-intimate rituals that were thought to contribute to the successful act of conception. Through this activity, new members of the tribe were created – as if from nothing. Furthermore, many martial rituals were associated with the animal-spirits of the dominant clan lineages – with this association between animal, human and martial arts Style still existing today within China and throughout the Chinese diaspora. The ‘totem’ that Eichhorn identifies - is routinely mentioned within Chinese-language sources and is directly linked to the historicity of the ‘中’ [Zhong) ideogram. Therefore, ‘that which penetrates’ in the ancient world is directly linked to ‘that which penetrates’ in the classical world through developed ritual of archery. ACW (5.3.2024)
‘Another manifestation which was in some way linked to the matriarchal phase of Chinese society was the totem cult. This was founded on the belief that the ancestor of the tribe was not a man but an animal, a plant, or a natural phenomenon, such as thunder, lightning, or rain. Thus, we read, for example, in the Shih Chi, the earliest general history of China: ‘One day the mother of Hsieh (ancestor of the Shang dynasty) and two companions went bathing. On her way she saw a dark-coloured bird. The bird laid an egg. She took the egg and swallowed it. Afterwards she became pregnant and bore Hsieh.’ And the same event is mentioned in the Shih Ching (Book of Songs): ‘Heaven appointed a dark-coloured bird. It descended and brought forth the Shang.
In such observations, which occur frequently in ancient literature, we can catch the legendary echo of ancient clan totems. And just as we may conclude from the passage quoted that the Shang clan had a bird totem, we gather from other sources that Hsia had a plant and stone totem.
Worship of the totem was of vital importance in holding the clan together and resulted in marriage within the same totem group being forbidden.
Later, when the matriarchal gave way to the patriarchal period, the woman following the husband into another totem group remained committed to her original totem. Her daughter was the first to come under the new totem. Mutatis Mutandis the procedure described above was repeated and here again a close relationship sprang up between grandmother and granddaughter, because both venerated the same totem.
Another feature of the totem cult was the tabooing of the name of the totem. The custom of later times whereby it was forbidden to write or pronounce the father’s personal name in the family circle or the ruler’s name public life – a prohibition that was extended to the names of the nearest ancestors – may have been a continuation of this practice. It probably started when the special temple names for use in ancestor-worship began to be given to dead rulers.
The transition from a matriarchal to a patriarchal society was naturally only a gradual one and was no doubt associated with fundamental changes in the economic system. By the beginning of the so-called Hsia dynasty, however, this process had gone so far that the leadership of the Hsia people – whatever, indeed, that may mean – was no longer based on some form of election of ‘the ablest’ but was passing from father to son, that is to say, was being handed down in typical patriarchal succession. Nevertheless, it appears that the paramount influence of women in certain spheres of public life, probably the religious in particular, persisted for a long time to come. It was not until the Chou period that women were relegated to their familiar position in the background of society.’
Werner Eichhorn: Chinese Civilisation – An Introduction, Translated By Janet Seligman, Faber, (1969), Pages 26-27 (Originally Published in German – 1964)
The land of China, at least within Western discourse, acquired its name from the ‘Qin Dynasty’ (221-207 BCE) – which only lasted for just fourteen-years - was known to both Greece and Rome. The Greek ‘Sinai’ (Σίναι) [sometimes ‘Sinae’] is the general name of the Far Eastern lands as recorded in Ptolemy's work entitled ‘Geography’. The Greeks may have borrowed this name from the Arabic term ‘Sīn’ (صين). The ‘Qin’ (秦) was referred to within Roman texts as ‘Sina’. Interestingly, the Roman ‘Sina’ has come into modern English as ‘China’ – which probably means something like ‘Qin-na’. However, although the West has learned and preserved one name for China – the Chinese people have always referred to themselves by whichever Dynasty has won and preserved political power. This came to an end with the success of the ‘Nationalist’ Revolution in 1911 – and was confirmed with the ‘Socialist’ Revolution of 1949 – as both regimes have adopted the more general ‘Zhongguo’ (中國) as the primary name for ‘China’.
The land of China, at least within Western discourse, acquired its name from the ‘Qin Dynasty’ (221-207 BCE) – which only lasted for just fourteen-years - was known to both Greece and Rome. The Greek ‘Sinai’ (Σίναι) [sometimes ‘Sinae’] is the general name of the Far Eastern lands as recorded in Ptolemy's work entitled ‘Geography’. The Greeks may have borrowed this name from the Arabic term ‘Sīn’ (صين). The ‘Qin’ (秦) was referred to within Roman texts as ‘Sina’. Interestingly, the Roman ‘Sina’ has come into modern English as ‘China’ – which probably means something like ‘Qin-na’. However, although the West has learned and preserved one name for China – the Chinese people have always referred to themselves by whichever Dynasty has won and preserved political power. This came to an end with the success of the ‘Nationalist’ Revolution in 1911 – and was confirmed with the ‘Socialist’ Revolution of 1949 – as both regimes have adopted the more general ‘Zhongguo’ (中國) as the primary name for ‘China’.
Essentially, the term ‘Zhongguo’ (中國) can be translated as the ‘Middle Country’ – but the ideogram ‘中’ (Zhong) is not new and has many connotations ascribed to it. Specifically, I was asked about whether it is true that ‘中’ (Zhong) can also be used to refer to the martial art of ‘archery’ – as implied by the British Sinologist – James Legge (1815-1897) – in his English language translation of the Confucian text he termed the ‘Doctrine of the Mean’ (中庸 – Zhong Yong). To test this hypothesis the history of the term ‘中’ (Zhong) must be examined in greater detail. The earliest extant example of the ‘中’ (Zhong) ideogram can be dated to the Oracle Bone Inscriptions and the Bronze Character Inscriptions (c. 1250 BCE or earlier) both produced within the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE). An early Oracle Inscription example is as follows:
This denotes a ‘drum’ placed in the centre of an open space – flanked by two Clan (or Tribal) banners blowing in the wind. Indeed, one explanation for the pronunciation of ‘Zhong’ is that it represents the sound the drum makes when struck (this is one of two ‘tones’ used within the Chinese language to express this ideogram – i.e. ‘zhòng’ as opposed to ‘zhōng’). In reality, the ‘口’ (kou3) particle represents an open ‘mouth’. This is important within Chinese philosophical thought as the (upper) mouth denotes the ‘Divine Sky’ – whilst the (lower) mouth stands for the Broad Earth. Both extremes are brought together when the mouth is closed (and also when the tongue – which is attached to the lower mouth – ‘touches’ the palate of the upper mouth – an image which figures prominently within Daoist self-cultivation). This ‘unity’ is indicated by the ‘丨’ (gun3) straight line.
Within Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) this particle suggests a two-way flow of ‘hidden’ but ‘empowering’ energy that travels from divine sky through ‘middle’ (which represents all life – including humanity) and into ground where it naturally ‘rebounds’ and reverses its course from lower, to middle and upper, etc. When all is perfectly balanced, this two-way energy flow occurs simultaneously and without contradiction. In this regard, a developed ideogram more fully expressing this world view may be observed in ‘王’ (wang2) – as a Trigram (found in the Change Classic – ‘Yijing’ or ‘Zhouyi’ [易經]). The right person ‘unites’ (丨) the ‘Broad Earth’, the ‘Middle Country’ (full of biological life), and the ‘Divine Sky’ (which contains the Sun, Moon and ‘Five’ planets observable with the human eye – the origin of the ‘Five Phases’ [五行 – Wu Xing] world view). Therefore, it says in the ancient divination (Oracle Bone) texts:
此字可疑。岂浅人误以屈中之虫入此欤。
‘An auspicious word. Only people of limited understanding mistake an ‘open’ mouth for containing an insect.’
Those who adopt a ‘centrality’ (中) of mind and body – naturally operate from a position of a superior moderation – as there is no tendency to lean toward the inferior behaviour associated with either extreme. This perfectly centred orientation of human consciousness (and behaviour) is believed to directly benefit human society. The following is also stated in the (Earlier Han Dynasty) text entitled the ‘New Book’ (新书 · Xin Shu) in the Chapter entitled ‘Category of Distance’ (属远 – Shu Yun):
古者天子地方千里,中之而为都。
‘In ancient times, the Emperor's territory measured thousands of miles - and yet the capital was established in the centre.’
Although Confucius favoured both military and academic study – he adhered to these ideas because such practices were already established throughout ancient China by the time he was born. As far as Confucius was concerned, he was not inventing or advocating anything new, but was reinforcing and emphasising the traditional values that already existed within Chinese society. Martial arts, particularly archery, is mentioned in many (and various) Chinese language texts prior to Confucius. An example of this can be found in the Zhou Dynasty text of the ‘Zhou Rites’ (周礼 – Zhou Li) in the Chapter entitled the ‘Archery Master’ (射人 – She Ren) – referring to an expert archer who specialises in the ritual of correctly shooting arrows into an inanimate target:
与太史数射中。
‘The Grand Historian fired arrows and the target’s centre was repeatedly hit.’
A Confucian development of this martial concept can be found in the ‘Rites Record’ (礼记 – Li Ji) text - in the Chapter entitled ‘Shooting Righteously’ (射义 – She Yi):
持弓矢审固,然后可以言中。故盛算之器即曰中。
‘Notch the arrow to the string whilst correctly assessing the weight and balance of the drawn bow. In this way, each released arrow directly hits the centre of the target. This level of physical accuracy is developed through expanding the awareness - so that a calm mind embraces the centre of the target.’
Refining the inner mind and character through continuous (and honest) correction - and then cultivating the body through daily training - is the foundation of genuine academic success. Only when a sound mind-body foundation has been achieved - can a Scholar-Archer truly speak of achieving anything tangible in the world. Only then can one have a basis for correctly "organizing the family, governing the country, and bringing peace to the world" (Rites Record). All true learning begins with rectifying oneself and cultivating one's character through the correct wielding of the writing-brush, the sword and the bow - which then leads to soundly governing the country and bringing peace to the world. This is how the Confucian-Scholars succinctly interpreted the traditions that existed before – to the generations that came after. As a Scholar-Official was expected to keep the peace without resorting to the drawing of deadly weapons – it is probable that weaponed martial arts were supplemented with their unarmed equivalents. There is some speculation that ‘Taijiquan’ (太极拳) or something similar to the ‘Grand Ridge-Pole Fist’ - is a candidate for this ‘Confucian’ unarmed martial art - on the grounds that the concept of ‘Taiji’ (太极) as found in the ‘Great Treatise’ Commentary (大傳 – Da Zhuan) of the ‘Change Classic’ [易经 – Yi Jing] - is a ‘Confucian’ concept later borrowed into Daoist philosophy. The techniques of ‘rooting’ whilst ‘opening the joints’ as found within Taijiquan - appear to be a preparation for ‘drawing’ and ‘firing’ the bow (as reflected in the ‘Daoyin’ [導引] and ‘Qigong’ [氣功] equivalent practices of ‘Drawing the Bow’ [画弓 – Hua Gong]). Many of the movements of contemporary Taijiquan are clearly recorded on the ‘Mawangdui’ (馬王堆) silk manuscript which dates to 168 BCE.
Chinese ideograms are comprised of particles that can be interpreted to represent many similar (or occasionally ‘different’) aspects or things. Overtime, a shift often occurs in interpretation which reflects the outer changes in society. The ‘archery’ interpretation is logical and builds upon the idea conveyed within the Oracle Bone Inscriptions which suggests that a firm shaft (or a bladed spear) is thrust firmly into the ‘receptive earth’ - so as to facilitate a strong totem-type presence – that denotes both ‘location’ and ‘identity’. Meanwhile, a ‘drum’ is correctly ‘hit’ so as to signal the bringing together of the masses. This ritualistic activity allows the ‘identity’ symbolism to be effectively facilitated. A structured activity equates to a successful transformation of the material world. These are very powerful elements within Chinese identity forming. As Chinese society developed and evolved, these core ideas were retained but experienced changes in their physical structure. A staff thrust into the earth became an arrow – whilst a drum being struck by a beater – became a target being pierced. The ritualistic attitude that solemnly brought the ancient tribe into the centre of the sacred ‘open space’ – transitioned into the required psychological and physical discipline required to hold, draw, aim and fire a bow so that the arrow could strike the centre of the designated target. These changes were dependent upon the staff evolving to a bladed-spear, and the bow and arrow evolving to a high-functioning weapon. Behind these technical developments were the intelligent abilities of the craftsmen and metal-smiths that transformed Chinese society.
Perhaps during the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE) the staff and the bladed-spear were venerated as the ideal weapon (this attitude would evolve to include the veneration of axes during the latter Shang) – as this is the weapon of choice reflected in the Bone Oracle Inscriptions. During the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE), however, the spear was superceded by the use of the bow and arrow – culminating in the use of it being extoled by Confucius himself. This suggests that although ancient China possessed a plethora of well-made weaponry requiring highly-skilled manipulation – certain tools of warfare were elevated to the level of ‘spiritual doorways’ – representing a higher plain of perception and a pathway of perfected actuality. The veneration of the bow and arrow probably reached its peak during the middle to latter Zhou Dynasty – and this is the era within which the ideogram ‘中’ (Zhong) starts to be associated (through interpretation) with the enlightened activity of ‘hitting the mark’ via the vehicle of ritualistic ‘archery’. As James Legge was specifically translating a Confucian text from this era – he was indeed correct to associate this ideogram with the art of ‘archery’ as used as a ritualistic device used to purify the mind, discipline the body and bring inner and outer order to society. This knowledge could be used to interpret the name of China as being the 'Land of Perfected Archers' (Confucian Scholar-Officials had to fire the bow with equal accuracy using both sides of their bodies) - as 'hitting the mark' at the 'centre of the target' is always assured!
©opyright: Adrian Chan-Wyles (ShiDaDao) 2024.
Chinese Language Texts:
为什么说中文不是“象形文字”之七 - 知乎 (zhihu.com)
https://baike.baidu.com/item/中/977204
https://www.zdic.net/hans/中
Within Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) this particle suggests a two-way flow of ‘hidden’ but ‘empowering’ energy that travels from divine sky through ‘middle’ (which represents all life – including humanity) and into ground where it naturally ‘rebounds’ and reverses its course from lower, to middle and upper, etc. When all is perfectly balanced, this two-way energy flow occurs simultaneously and without contradiction. In this regard, a developed ideogram more fully expressing this world view may be observed in ‘王’ (wang2) – as a Trigram (found in the Change Classic – ‘Yijing’ or ‘Zhouyi’ [易經]). The right person ‘unites’ (丨) the ‘Broad Earth’, the ‘Middle Country’ (full of biological life), and the ‘Divine Sky’ (which contains the Sun, Moon and ‘Five’ planets observable with the human eye – the origin of the ‘Five Phases’ [五行 – Wu Xing] world view). Therefore, it says in the ancient divination (Oracle Bone) texts:
此字可疑。岂浅人误以屈中之虫入此欤。
‘An auspicious word. Only people of limited understanding mistake an ‘open’ mouth for containing an insect.’
Those who adopt a ‘centrality’ (中) of mind and body – naturally operate from a position of a superior moderation – as there is no tendency to lean toward the inferior behaviour associated with either extreme. This perfectly centred orientation of human consciousness (and behaviour) is believed to directly benefit human society. The following is also stated in the (Earlier Han Dynasty) text entitled the ‘New Book’ (新书 · Xin Shu) in the Chapter entitled ‘Category of Distance’ (属远 – Shu Yun):
古者天子地方千里,中之而为都。
‘In ancient times, the Emperor's territory measured thousands of miles - and yet the capital was established in the centre.’
Although Confucius favoured both military and academic study – he adhered to these ideas because such practices were already established throughout ancient China by the time he was born. As far as Confucius was concerned, he was not inventing or advocating anything new, but was reinforcing and emphasising the traditional values that already existed within Chinese society. Martial arts, particularly archery, is mentioned in many (and various) Chinese language texts prior to Confucius. An example of this can be found in the Zhou Dynasty text of the ‘Zhou Rites’ (周礼 – Zhou Li) in the Chapter entitled the ‘Archery Master’ (射人 – She Ren) – referring to an expert archer who specialises in the ritual of correctly shooting arrows into an inanimate target:
与太史数射中。
‘The Grand Historian fired arrows and the target’s centre was repeatedly hit.’
A Confucian development of this martial concept can be found in the ‘Rites Record’ (礼记 – Li Ji) text - in the Chapter entitled ‘Shooting Righteously’ (射义 – She Yi):
持弓矢审固,然后可以言中。故盛算之器即曰中。
‘Notch the arrow to the string whilst correctly assessing the weight and balance of the drawn bow. In this way, each released arrow directly hits the centre of the target. This level of physical accuracy is developed through expanding the awareness - so that a calm mind embraces the centre of the target.’
Refining the inner mind and character through continuous (and honest) correction - and then cultivating the body through daily training - is the foundation of genuine academic success. Only when a sound mind-body foundation has been achieved - can a Scholar-Archer truly speak of achieving anything tangible in the world. Only then can one have a basis for correctly "organizing the family, governing the country, and bringing peace to the world" (Rites Record). All true learning begins with rectifying oneself and cultivating one's character through the correct wielding of the writing-brush, the sword and the bow - which then leads to soundly governing the country and bringing peace to the world. This is how the Confucian-Scholars succinctly interpreted the traditions that existed before – to the generations that came after. As a Scholar-Official was expected to keep the peace without resorting to the drawing of deadly weapons – it is probable that weaponed martial arts were supplemented with their unarmed equivalents. There is some speculation that ‘Taijiquan’ (太极拳) or something similar to the ‘Grand Ridge-Pole Fist’ - is a candidate for this ‘Confucian’ unarmed martial art - on the grounds that the concept of ‘Taiji’ (太极) as found in the ‘Great Treatise’ Commentary (大傳 – Da Zhuan) of the ‘Change Classic’ [易经 – Yi Jing] - is a ‘Confucian’ concept later borrowed into Daoist philosophy. The techniques of ‘rooting’ whilst ‘opening the joints’ as found within Taijiquan - appear to be a preparation for ‘drawing’ and ‘firing’ the bow (as reflected in the ‘Daoyin’ [導引] and ‘Qigong’ [氣功] equivalent practices of ‘Drawing the Bow’ [画弓 – Hua Gong]). Many of the movements of contemporary Taijiquan are clearly recorded on the ‘Mawangdui’ (馬王堆) silk manuscript which dates to 168 BCE.
Chinese ideograms are comprised of particles that can be interpreted to represent many similar (or occasionally ‘different’) aspects or things. Overtime, a shift often occurs in interpretation which reflects the outer changes in society. The ‘archery’ interpretation is logical and builds upon the idea conveyed within the Oracle Bone Inscriptions which suggests that a firm shaft (or a bladed spear) is thrust firmly into the ‘receptive earth’ - so as to facilitate a strong totem-type presence – that denotes both ‘location’ and ‘identity’. Meanwhile, a ‘drum’ is correctly ‘hit’ so as to signal the bringing together of the masses. This ritualistic activity allows the ‘identity’ symbolism to be effectively facilitated. A structured activity equates to a successful transformation of the material world. These are very powerful elements within Chinese identity forming. As Chinese society developed and evolved, these core ideas were retained but experienced changes in their physical structure. A staff thrust into the earth became an arrow – whilst a drum being struck by a beater – became a target being pierced. The ritualistic attitude that solemnly brought the ancient tribe into the centre of the sacred ‘open space’ – transitioned into the required psychological and physical discipline required to hold, draw, aim and fire a bow so that the arrow could strike the centre of the designated target. These changes were dependent upon the staff evolving to a bladed-spear, and the bow and arrow evolving to a high-functioning weapon. Behind these technical developments were the intelligent abilities of the craftsmen and metal-smiths that transformed Chinese society.
Perhaps during the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE) the staff and the bladed-spear were venerated as the ideal weapon (this attitude would evolve to include the veneration of axes during the latter Shang) – as this is the weapon of choice reflected in the Bone Oracle Inscriptions. During the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE), however, the spear was superceded by the use of the bow and arrow – culminating in the use of it being extoled by Confucius himself. This suggests that although ancient China possessed a plethora of well-made weaponry requiring highly-skilled manipulation – certain tools of warfare were elevated to the level of ‘spiritual doorways’ – representing a higher plain of perception and a pathway of perfected actuality. The veneration of the bow and arrow probably reached its peak during the middle to latter Zhou Dynasty – and this is the era within which the ideogram ‘中’ (Zhong) starts to be associated (through interpretation) with the enlightened activity of ‘hitting the mark’ via the vehicle of ritualistic ‘archery’. As James Legge was specifically translating a Confucian text from this era – he was indeed correct to associate this ideogram with the art of ‘archery’ as used as a ritualistic device used to purify the mind, discipline the body and bring inner and outer order to society. This knowledge could be used to interpret the name of China as being the 'Land of Perfected Archers' (Confucian Scholar-Officials had to fire the bow with equal accuracy using both sides of their bodies) - as 'hitting the mark' at the 'centre of the target' is always assured!
©opyright: Adrian Chan-Wyles (ShiDaDao) 2024.
Chinese Language Texts:
为什么说中文不是“象形文字”之七 - 知乎 (zhihu.com)
https://baike.baidu.com/item/中/977204
https://www.zdic.net/hans/中
English Language Reference:
Werner Eichhorn: Chinese Civilisation – An Introduction, Translated By Janet Seligman, Faber, (1969), (Originally Published in German – 1964)
Werner Eichhorn: Chinese Civilisation – An Introduction, Translated By Janet Seligman, Faber, (1969), (Originally Published in German – 1964)
James Legge, Confucius, Confucian Analects, The Great Learning & The Doctrine of the Mean, Chinese Texts; Translation with Exegetical Notes and Dictionary of all Characters, Dover [New York], (1883 [Originally] & 1971) - See Page 384 (Footnote 4) & Page 413 (Footnote 18) for Specific Mention of ‘中’ (Zhong) in Main Text of the ‘Doctrine of the Mean’ – for a Discussion of ‘Archery’ and ‘Hitting the Middle of the Target’ - See Page 396 (Footnote 5). For Confucius (Analects) Discussing Natural Archery - See Page 157 (Footnote 7) and Page 160 (Footnote 16) for ‘Not Going Through the Leather of the Target’